The 17th century was a turning point in the history of human appearance, when the renewal of clothing and the pace of fashion finally became a serious matter. There is an unprecedented interest in manufacturing and handicrafts, and confrontation and competition between the great powers is taking place on a European scale. Still, the French royal family, marked by its absolutism, set the fashion tone firmly. Paris has captured the position it still holds today: the capital of fashion.

The production of clothing and accessories has been made easier by massive improvements in tools and supported by new process regulations. In the context of the scientific world, the generation of new fashion has become more systematic. At the same time, the body is becoming a true "architecture," confirming a trend that was already foreseen a century ago. People pay more and more attention to their bodies. Everyone, whether religious, literary, political or medical, is pursuing fashion, and there is less and less condemnation of fashion. As the Renaissance continued, the spread of fashion became easier. Manufacturers and practitioners are making more systematic use of existing advertising methods, such as doll models, and using rapidly developing print and fashion magazines to showcase trends and products. The Palace of Versailles became a place where trends were created and changed, and organized fashion shows began here long before the advent of fashion shows in the second half of the 19th century. Those interested in novelty, of course, included aristocrats, who knew what it took to be at the forefront of fashion. However, fake techniques are also used to satisfy the general public who want to dress more fashionably.

The rapid development of clothing economy

In the 17th century, fashion became an important political bargaining chip. Although French and British products are different, their goal is the same: to promote domestic industry. The French court borrowed from Spanish or Italian fashion and injected French elements into it. The lace of Calais and the silk of Lyon conquered the world, and French products led the way. Louis XIV (reigned 1643-1715) wore them and influenced members of his court: the tonality of French fashion was thus established by the monarch. The sophistication of the French fashion industry has spread abroad through figures dressed in French fashion. In England, according to Samuel Pepys' Diary, Charles II opted for a more restrained style in 1666 to support English wool and linen fabrics that were suffering from fierce competition, in part from brightly coloured cotton from India. Competition is also taking place overseas. The rivalry between France and the UK revolves around the target market of the product. France positioned itself as a land of luxury and high taste, while Britain focused on ready-to-wear.

Louis XIV

During the reign of Charles II (1660-1685), English shipowners and navies ordered large quantities of coarse cloth clothing to provide English sailors with clothing for months or even years at sea. Thus, as early as the 17th century, the British conquest of the seas and colonies stimulated the textile industry. Contractors contract with governments or shipping companies to buy the materials needed to make the garments and then hire workers to make them at home. Contractors paid workers by the piece and often deliberately undercounted pieces, and workers often lived beyond their means - a system of subcontracting production reminiscent of the phenomenon that still exists today on Europe's borders. In the UK, the trend is towards minimalism, with less formal styles and looser cuts. Demand for menswear is falling across all classes. As urban work has changed, especially for women, clothing has also adapted to economic and social changes. This continued into the 20th century. At the same time, Europeans continued to explore distant parts of the earth. Europe is not indifferent to fabrics and clothing from the other side of the world. Beginning in the 17th century, banyan and cotton influenced European economic policy and manufacturers' production. However, the acceleration of the circulation of new clothes has not hindered the development of the second-hand clothing trade, and even promoted it.

The Londoner Samuel Pepys recorded many accounts of clothing in his Diary from 1660 to 1669. The British dignitary loves fashion and follows trends. Pepys asked his father, who knew how to sew, to give those outdated clothes "a new lease of life." Pepys had taken these outdated clothes from his rich friend's house. Pepys understands this: Since people can't update their clothes as often because of financial problems, it's enough to invest in a trendy piece of clothing or accessory. Junk dealers were particularly active in London in the 17th century, selling both new and used clothes. These merchants made a fortune on sailors who, for their jobs, had to buy multiple pieces of the same garment. Merchants sell large quantities of clothing, sometimes earning thousands of pounds. In Venice, by contrast, the second-hand clothing business is heavily regulated. The trauma of the plague still haunts the city, and the trade in second-hand clothing is closely monitored. In addition, prostitutes rent or buy clothes in second-hand clothing stores, which makes many people shy away from second-hand clothing stores. Changes in fashion were seen as a source of wealth for merchants and national prestige.

He who is fashionable wins the world

Merchandising is not a modern creation. Since the time of ancient civilization, sales activities have been carried out in markets or stores. In the 17th century, however, there were new requirements for the display of goods, which sought to demonstrate value by emphasizing the scarcity and luxury of products. Shopping malls in the 17th and 18th centuries, such as Westminster Hall, were rationalised to attract regular customers. Thus, shopping, understood as a leisure activity, was born as an inevitable result of the retail boom.

People visit a shopping street in London in 1834

The Paris-Versailles duo has won fashion's "crown." In the 16th century, clothing in Europe was still very diverse. But after the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648, France became the richest and most powerful country in Europe. Monarchs, especially Louis XIV, used fashion as a powerful political weapon, enabling France to establish its cultural preeminence. Monarchs controlled aristocrats by requiring them to wear appropriate clothing at court, which was also a way for them to ensure the consumption of aristocratic clothing. The role of Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683), treasurer from 1665 to 1683, was crucial. He coordinated the French textile and garment economy to ensure the supply and quality of domestic products. It was through a combination of political ideals, economic rationalisation and changes in fashion that French leadership was cemented.

In this way, fashion is actually a strategy of war, designed to maintain a kingdom's cultural superiority. This culture war was fought first between Spain and France, with the influence of the Iberian peninsula particularly evident in painting and literature, before France's major rival became Britain. The court of Versailles was splendid, but the production situation of the Kingdom of France at that time could not meet the needs of the aristocracy, so it was necessary to stimulate and organize the production of higher quality luxury goods. The king of France encouraged his courtiers to consume the country's luxury goods and textiles. French artisans wearing foreign clothes meant they were inferior. Madame de Montespan (1640-1707), the king's officially acknowledged mistress, was the first person to wear "Made in France" (made in France) clothes. She stood firm and openly resisted foreign influence. Jean-baptiste Corbert, who manages trade, argues that imports are impoverping France. A country that wants to get rich must innovate, organize production, increase exports, and tax imports more. The court thus became a window on all that was best about France. The combination of absolutism and the luxury typical of the 17th century produced very good results.

Corbert and Louis XIV placed their bets on manufacturers' organizations and workshop clusters. Manufacturers get economic privileges and trading companies operate under special rules. Even manufacturers without special rights enjoy greater freedom. In 1662, Corbert founded a tapestries and carpet manufacturing factory called Gobelins in Paris. He also supported the silk factories of Lyon. Foreign workers were hired to teach skills to French artisans. Restricting imports seems to be a key objective of European policy. Europeans understand the stakes behind fashion. Even names were traded, and as the fame of Flanders lace grew, they became known in London shops as "English stitch edging" - a classic ploy to restrict imports from Italy. The difference is actually technical: Flanders lace can be folded so it can be used for a ruff, while Italian lace is used for a flat collar. After the Alencon factory was established, the King of France banned the use of foreign lace, and the 8,000 workers who produced the lace had to produce a domestic substitute. If they initially copied foreign styles of clothing and accessories, they quickly shed that constraint. Corbert also borrowed from the lace patterns of the Great Century, which appeared on the collars, sleeves, and waistcoats of men and women, as well as on the clothes of the clergy, and on carriages... Corbert quickly understood the importance of systematizing consumption around the court. The establishment of competition order in manufacturing industry is a response to the demand of rationalizing production.

Beginning in the 16th century, tailors used printed matter to demonstrate their profession and the process of making it. One might think that some books are written to make clothes for the home, but their cost reflects the exact opposite. Juan de Alcega's Livre sur la geometrie, Cutting Practices and Patterns (la pratique et les patrons, 1580) seems to be the first of its kind, reprinted several times in the 17th century. Hernan Gutierrez, the tailor of the Princess of Portugal, and Juan Lopez de Burgette, the tailor of the Duke of Albert, confirmed the value of the book: "It was very good, practical and beneficial to the public." The first part of the book is both historical and educational, explaining the origin of "the ruler we used in the Kingdom of Castile," with units of measurement divided into "1/12, 1/8, 1/6, 1/4, 1/3, and finally 1/2." Alsega devotes 22 chapters to this issue and uses fractions as a teaching tool so that everyone can correctly deliver fabric orders without wasting or running out of fabric. In the second part of the book, Alsega shows 135 designs for the clothing of men, women, clergy, military commanders, and even combat uniforms and flags, which are of impressive quality. The authors detailed the amount of fabric needed for each piece with the help of a table in which three lengths and 14 widths can be used across each other. In the 17th and 18th centuries, this publishing industry developed rapidly in the Iberian Peninsula, France, England, and the Holy Roman Empire. The cutting, stitching, lining and sewing of clothing are explained rationally in mathematical form. As a result, clothing could be mass-produced. The great increase in technical data and the support given by different branches of mathematics contributed to the scientification of the world. Professionals can also read fashion magazines. The magazine Mercure Galant (1776-1824), for example, did not limit itself to spreading fashion; in fact, it provided the necessary advice on buying the right materials and making the styles that were popular at the time. The activities of the clothier, the tailor, or the wig-maker are part of a permanent business, and we can get a sense of it by the names that people have given to the materials of the workshop: flannel, Rouen cotton, Toure, Beauvais, and even the worldwide Spanish sleeve, Dutch cloth, Brandenburg chest, Siamese fan, fan's talons, or Polish mink. Fashion magazines provide the geographical indications needed to make fashionable clothing.

The garment economy of the Great century was characterized by accelerated changes in fashion, rationalization of production, and state input. Fashion has become part of the game among Europe's great powers, all vying for key positions on the political stage. In the second half of the 18th century, the geographical center of fashion shifted toward France, which became the embodiment of luxury and taste, while Italy was marginalized. In 1648, the Spanish Habsburgs declared the independence of the provinces, marking the end of the Spanish Golden Age. Fashion spreads mainly through new communication tools that make it possible for manufacturers and distributors to advertise their products.

Fashion dissemination: action figures, prints, fashion shows

The movement of people and goods helps fashion expand. The Great century was characterized by the birth and development of marketing tools. The boom in the consumption and appearance economy can be seen in the growth of fashion figures, pictures and magazines, as well as early fashion shows.

A "fashion figure" is a miniature model that is sent from Paris to the provinces or abroad. Its appearance dates back to before the 17th century, but in the 17th century, its use grew significantly. The figures with glass eyes, skin and hair are made from a variety of low-cost materials, such as paper clay or wax. In Germany, Daniel Neuberger makes wax dolls in Augsburg that seem so glamorous that they are "colorful and lifelike." The doll's absence was even a hindrance to trading at the time. Their popularity allowed them to receive a royal pass that allowed them to cross borders smoothly, even in times of war. The continuous and frequent trade between France and England during the War of the Spanish Succession attests to this. In 1704, at the height of the war, the Abbe Prevost wrote:

They won't let the big doll come to London from Paris. As the model for all the ladies in the country, she was a three or four foot snowstone figure dressed in the most fashionable clothes. Some say that the British and French ministers, in a gesture of unhistoric gallantry to the woman, promised to issue the figurine an exclusive passport and, against the backdrop of bitter hostility between the two countries, jointly recognized and enforced the release. In this way, the doll was perhaps the only thing that was "respected" by the weapon at the time.